SPEAKER_03: New, immune-supporting Emergen-C crystals brings you the goodness of Emergen-C and a fun new popping experience. There is no water needed so it's super convenient, just throw it back in your mouth. Feel the pop, hear the fizz, and taste the delicious natural fruit flavors. Emergen-C crystals orange vitality and strawberry burst flavors for ages 9 and up have 500 mg of vitamin C per stick pack. Look for Emergen-C crystals wherever you shop. These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Every kid learns differently, so it's really important that your children have the educational support that they need to help them keep up and excel. If your child needs homework help, check out iXcel, the online learning platform for kids. iXcel covers math, language arts, science, and social studies through interactive practice problems from pre-K to 12th grade. As kids practice, they get positive feedback and even awards. With the school year ramping up, now is the best time to get iXcel. Our listeners can get an exclusive 20% off iXcel membership when they sign up today at ixcel.com slash invisible. That's the letters ixcel.com slash invisible. Squarespace is the all-in-one platform for building your brand and growing your business online. Stand out with a beautiful website, engage with your audience, and sell anything. Your products, content you create, and even your time. You can easily display posts from your social profiles on your website or share new blogs or videos to social media. Automatically push website content to your favorite channels so your followers can share it too. Go to squarespace.com slash invisible for a free trial and when you're ready to launch, use the offer code invisible to save 10% off your first purchase of a website or domain. This is 99% invisible. I'm Roman Mars. When you crank the gear of a music box, you can make the tune go as fast or as slowly as you want as you spin the little handle around and around and around.
SPEAKER_09: The music is read from the series of little bumps like braille.
SPEAKER_03: Producer Avery Truffleman.
SPEAKER_09: These little bumps stick up and they hit a series of tines which create a song.
SPEAKER_07: It's a form of storage.
SPEAKER_09: This is Dag Spicer, senior curator at the Computer History Museum.
SPEAKER_07: Your music box is storing that program which is the music. You think of that as software even though you might not think of it as that, but that's really what it is. It's software.
SPEAKER_09: And this method of data storage, a series of bumps or a series of holes, was also used in player pianos. It's also the mechanism behind computer punch cards.
SPEAKER_03: Go ask your grandpa about those.
SPEAKER_07: Throughout most of the 20th century, punch cards were the dominant form of data processing input and output form.
SPEAKER_09: Computer punch card technology, the precursor to electronic computing, was the way that data was stored and tabulated for decades back when computers would take up a whole room.
SPEAKER_03: This technology of bumps and holes is also why you're wearing what you're wearing.
SPEAKER_07: Right, well one of the things you may not know is that an early automated weaving machine actually has a role to play in the history of computing.
SPEAKER_09: When he says a weaving machine, Dagg is talking about a loom.
SPEAKER_07: A loom is gigantic.
SPEAKER_09: Well there are lots of different kinds of looms in different sizes, but yes, European industrial looms in the 1700s were really big.
SPEAKER_07: About 30 feet high in some cases and maybe 30 feet long and it's an enormous, enormous piece of equipment.
SPEAKER_03: The design in a fabric is determined by how many threads the weaver goes over or under, which ones come to the top, and which ones are submerged in the weave.
SPEAKER_09: These patterns were so complicated and intricate, industrial weavers needed to hire little delicate fingers to pull the threads and keep track of them. And so in the 17th century, this was a job for the draw boy, an actual boy.
SPEAKER_06: So your draw boy would go and say, well, we need to have the white showing through here. So I pull this one, this one needs to go all the way through, but this one needs to be skipped and on and on. So he's pulling these threads.
SPEAKER_09: This is Chris Garcia, also a curator at the Computer History Museum. It must have been murder on fingers.
SPEAKER_09: Well, there were tools created to help the draw boys, like forks and levers and harnesses. It wasn't all done with bare hands, but it was a lot of work to do.
SPEAKER_06: You could imagine if you have a significantly large item, you might have 200 threads that have to be pulled.
SPEAKER_09: At the beginning of the 18th century, clothes imported from China became all the rage in France and a fashion developed for beautiful, tiny, ornate weavings.
SPEAKER_07: Making clothes that are a little bit finer, a little bit more interesting to look at, you can use a Jacquard loom to create patterns, sophisticated patterns in that clothing.
SPEAKER_09: The Jacquard loom was a device, innovated by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804. This is an add on.
SPEAKER_09: And you could attach it to the power loom.
SPEAKER_07: So it's like adding cruise control to your car or something. It's like an added feature so that the work product, the clothes you can produce are even more elaborate.
SPEAKER_09: Each new fabric design was encoded in thick cardboard cards.
SPEAKER_07: Each hole or position of the hole represents a hook on the loom. A hole in the card told the loom, yes, lift this thread.
SPEAKER_07: So whether the hook is raised or lowered depends on whether there's a hole or not a hole in the Jacquard control cards.
SPEAKER_09: Which were tied together into a loop and fed automatically into the loom.
SPEAKER_03: And one card represented just one pass of thread so there would be lots of cards sewed together.
SPEAKER_09: And the loop of cards went around and around and around to create a repeating pattern. Just like the music encoded in the music box.
SPEAKER_03: This didn't mean the machine was weaving the cloth automatically. It still required a master weaver and a pattern designer and a punch card maker. But it did mean the draw boys were out of a job.
SPEAKER_06: Once you have a Jacquard mechanism, you don't need the draw boy. Half of your workforce can be eliminated.
SPEAKER_09: For manufacturers who wanted to make the most beautiful, the most intricate patterns, what was increasingly more important than labor was intellectual property. The designs.
SPEAKER_07: In Jacquard's time, people stole these control cards because they represented patterns. If the patterns were popular, it could be very lucrative to keep making. You know how fashion goes in styles and everybody comes out with the same stuff every year. They're all copying each other almost, right? The same trends. So I like to think of this as the first instance of software piracy. That people are stealing these Jacquard loom cards.
SPEAKER_09: And the Jacquard loom cards would lead to the development of an entire new industry that would change the world.
SPEAKER_07: In 1890, a German-American inventor named Herman Hollerith devised a solution to the United States Census Bureau's problem of counting all the new immigrants to the country and citizens.
SPEAKER_09: Tabulating the census used to take about 10 years. So that means by the time the census was finished, it was already time to start taking the next one.
SPEAKER_03: Hollerith came up with a system where if each individual's information was punched on cards, it could be processed more quickly.
SPEAKER_07: Herman Hollerith specifically quoted the Jacquard loom as his influence.
SPEAKER_09: His influence for coming up with computer punch cards.
SPEAKER_07: Once you have patterns of holes in a card, it's now machine readable. And that's how the census was done in three years instead of 10.
SPEAKER_09: The 1890 census was a huge advance in the history of computing.
SPEAKER_07: Now, just to wrap up the story, Hollerith's punch card patents were actually the foundation for a small company you may have heard of called International Business Machines, or IBM.
SPEAKER_03: Which in some ways owes its existence to the loom and to that rising demand for beautiful ornate patterns. Because of fashion. Because of fashion.
SPEAKER_09: Fashion is just another word for the constant inevitable shifts in popular taste. Garments, just like buildings and cars and movies, can't help but reflect the circumstances of our moment in history. That's what fashion is. Another way of telling time.
SPEAKER_03: Back and forth and back and forth. Around and around and around. The loom inspired us, the computer. The computer changed the way we buy, order, and think about clothes. Clothing and culture impact each other.
SPEAKER_09: And we need to dedicate some serious time to talking about what we wear. So that's what we're going to do.
SPEAKER_03: For the past eight years, we've asked you to start noticing elements in architecture and design. Because architecture is the art we live in. The medium in which we move. Influencing us in a thousand invisible ways. For the next three weeks, we're going to ask you to do the same with another universal art that we all live in. Clothing. It's our first spinoff show hosted by Avery called Articles of Interest. And it will be right here twice a week for the next three weeks in your 99PI feed. We'll have the first episode after this break about what happened to working children like those draw boys and how their clothing changed. If you need to design visuals for your brand, you know how important it is to stay on brand. Brands need to use their logos, colors, and fonts in order to stay consistent. It's what makes them stand out. The online design platform Canva makes it easy for everyone to stay on brand. With Canva, you can keep your brand's fonts, logos, colors, and graphics right where you design presentations, websites, videos, and more. Drag and drop your logo into a website design or click to get your social post colors on brand. Create brand templates to give anyone on your team a design head start. You can save time resizing social posts with Canva Magic Resize. If your company decides to rebrand, replace your logo and other brand imagery across all your designs in just a few clicks. If you're a designer, Canva will save you time on the repetitive tasks. And if you don't have a design resource at your fingertips, just design it yourself. With Canva, you don't need to be a designer to design visuals that stand out and stay on brand. Start designing today at Canva.com, the home for every brand.
SPEAKER_09: So what are you wearing right now?
SPEAKER_10: Oh geez, okay. So what I'm wearing now, this is a black shirt from American Apparel and it's like a f***ing god fabric. I can't explain it.
SPEAKER_09: My friend and colleague, Joe Rosenberg, is a really good dresser. He just has this rich understanding of textiles and cuts and you can just tell in all these subtle ways. Below that is 7 for All Mankind jeans.
SPEAKER_10: They make pretty good kid-sized jeans, which is what I wear.
SPEAKER_09: Joe shops in kid sizes.
SPEAKER_10: I'm 4 foot 8. I guess you could say I'm a little person insofar as I am literally little. But I don't think of myself in that way.
SPEAKER_10: I'm just the size of a 10-year-old.
SPEAKER_09: Joe doesn't have the typical dimensions of someone with dwarfism.
SPEAKER_10: So it's called, and I'm going to botch the pronunciation, it's called spondyloepiphytheal dysplasia. It's a mutation that I developed as an embryo. To demonstrate how rare it is, my entire life I've only had one occasion to meet someone who was my height and was short in the way I was short. I was at a party in college, senior year of college, I still remember it. And we talked about clothes.
SPEAKER_09: Articles of interest. A show about what we wear.
SPEAKER_01: And so maybe the idea is about clothing. You can attach. Our idea is about class.
SPEAKER_05: An idea of hope. A idea of home to a piece of cloth.
SPEAKER_01: These are best for last.
SPEAKER_04: Any fool can wear clothes.
SPEAKER_00: But if you ain't got the attitude and the style to carry it off, man, you're just a clothes boss.
SPEAKER_09: Clothes are records of the bodies we've lived in. Think of an old sweater you used to have that's just not your style anymore. Or jeans that just aren't your size anymore. We are like snakes who shed our skins and grow new ones as we age. And it all starts in the kids department. It's not looking good. Oh wow. Joe and I went to J. Crew together. He was pretty much ready to give up as soon as we walked in. We haven't even dove in yet. I know we haven't. The kids section was one row and everything in it was very loud.
SPEAKER_09: This shirt glows in the dark.
SPEAKER_10: This shirt glows in the dark. This shirt has many tie dye bicycles on it.
SPEAKER_09: This shirt has so many stripes that maybe it almost works.
SPEAKER_09: The color palette of the children's department tends to be really bright and way over decorated as Joe and I debriefed in his car.
SPEAKER_10: The fundamental thing about shopping as a very short person and having to shop for kids clothes is that your life is just this hellscape of like ripped jeans and deliberate patches and fun slogans and crazy zippers and bold colors and prints and the idea that you're going to find just like slim jeans in a subtle hue dark wash you know like no it just doesn't happen.
SPEAKER_09: It almost makes no sense. You'd think that we would all start as young blank canvases dressed in shades of white and gray slowly acquiring more and more colors more graphics more signifiers of who we are as we age and solidify into ourselves until we finally retire in jeans that we've ripped and distressed and patched ourselves paired with graphic t-shirts that list all the bands we've heard and TV shows we've watched and cities we've visited throughout our lives. But no all that decoration and phony self-expression is put in a blender with birthday cake in sequence and then put in a hanger on a rack. That's the kids section. It's bad.
SPEAKER_10: And actually even if I'm just alone I'm slightly embarrassed for myself.
SPEAKER_09: So how did we get here? Where did this style we call children's clothes come from? Children's clothes haven't always been a thing and historically especially in the United States childhood itself was a luxury.
SPEAKER_01: Because you have working children children of parents who are not slaves but have to work and the children who are slaves and have to work and maybe don't have a childhood much really at all.
SPEAKER_09: This is Erin Algeo. She's the curator at the Lecise Museum of Lace and Textiles in Berkeley.
SPEAKER_01: Some children are always clean and some children are always precious and some are not. That's class. That's whether someone is slave or free. The children who were not considered clean or precious didn't get children's clothes.
SPEAKER_01: I'm sure you've seen pictures of children that are working and they do look like little adults as they're standing in the cotton mill or boys that go down and work in the mines.
SPEAKER_09: Basically poorer children were given what was around while upper class children had the privilege of being deliberately dressed. And although fancy children were also sometimes dressed like little adults underneath their clothes a lot of them were wearing corsets.
SPEAKER_01: If your parents wanted to raise you correctly they would put you boys and girls in corsets.
SPEAKER_09: There's this whole idea that children had to be cultivated like a dog in a harness or a flower on a trellis.
SPEAKER_01: Now the corsets were not as intense as older women were but yes boys and girls it was considered for posture and so forth that you would be in a corset.
SPEAKER_09: And although it happened slowly the demise of the child corset is thanks to philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
SPEAKER_01: Our concept of childhood that we have now was really formed in the 18th century.
SPEAKER_09: In 1762 Rousseau wrote, Hold childhood in reverence and do not be in any hurry to judge it for good or for ill. Give nature time to work before you take over her business lest you interfere with her dealings.
SPEAKER_01: It made the concept that those little bodies needed to be free, free and unfettered.
SPEAKER_09: Side note Rousseau himself was a terrible dad. He dropped his children off at an orphanage and abandoned them.
SPEAKER_01: But philosophies like his paired with eventual child labor laws and regulations really helped
SPEAKER_09: shape our idea of what a precious valuable time childhood is.
SPEAKER_01: In the 18th century clothes just for children come in and they look different than adult clothes.
SPEAKER_09: In these clothes children are dressed up for the occasion of their youth. This amazing time free from cares separate from the rest of their lives.
SPEAKER_01: They were designed for ease of movement. When we look at them today we can't believe anyone could move in them.
SPEAKER_09: They may have been easier to move in than a corset but these clothes were still really formal like embroidered dresses for girls and boxy little suits for boys.
SPEAKER_01: But it just looks like a little suit I guess. Yeah no it is it is adorable actually.
SPEAKER_09: So children are wearing these adorable mini me get ups. It's almost like a parody of adulthood stuff meant to look like adult clothes that adults would never actually wear which is what we see now in the kids department. And it has everything to do with our evolving concepts of childhood and how much freedom and protection we think children ought to have. Because although their corsets are long gone children are still bound by legal requirements. What what is this thing you gave me.
SPEAKER_08: This is from the NRA.
SPEAKER_09: No not that NRA.
SPEAKER_08: The National Retail Association of Australia.
SPEAKER_09: My friend Morgan is not Australian. She is a technical designer for a big children's clothing company. She'd rather not say which one. One of the major children's clothing retailers in the United States.
SPEAKER_09: Her company has many many many rules about what can and cannot be in children's clothes but those rules are top secret. So Morgan brought me that Australian safety guide because it's kind of similar and it gives you a rough idea. This is 76 pages long and thorough and it goes through at the beginning the way you
SPEAKER_08: assess risk which is high to low based on if a kid could die from it.
SPEAKER_09: You don't want choking hazards no sharp edges and no drawstrings.
SPEAKER_08: Globally there are reports of various serious injuries and deaths occurring when knots toggles or cord ends become snagged or caught into moving parts or closing doors. In order to address that you can't have a cord that's longer than three inches and that goes all the way up to 12 years in the United States.
SPEAKER_09: Sometimes in the kids section you can see drawstrings on hoodies or sweatpants but those don't actually function. They're just decorative.
SPEAKER_08: They can't actually cinch the body you can only cinch in between these two inches.
SPEAKER_09: It's basically so that kids can look like little adults without running the risks of adult dressing so the clothing companies don't get in trouble.
SPEAKER_08: I mean you can get sued for sure if you kill kids you know. They're not doing it just for a sense of morality.
SPEAKER_09: These guidelines are the cobbled together aftermath of a series of disasters. It's just like lawsuit after lawsuit. Every time an item is recalled or a clothing company gets sued for endangering a child the guidelines get revised or tightened. And one of the biggest legal differences between children and adult clothes is flammability.
SPEAKER_08: Flame retardant is a huge one. Everything has to be flame retardant if they're sleeping.
SPEAKER_09: If a child is going to sleep in it the fabric has to be flame retardant and the garment has to fit tight.
SPEAKER_08: They are concerned about candles, nightlights, fires in house, whatever could happen if their kid is wearing loose fitting clothing and it's hanging loose from you it's just going to like have a lot of oxygen to give you a bunch of third degree burns. Anything that could potentially be sleepwear has to be near skin tight and has to be flame resistant so that doesn't happen to kids.
SPEAKER_09: And this starts to get at our question about why kids clothes look the way they do. Because note how Morgan said anything that could potentially be sleepwear. Flammability rules don't just apply to clothes labeled as pajamas. They could apply to any garment a parent puts their kids to sleep in or that a kid decides
SPEAKER_08: that they want to sleep in it.
SPEAKER_09: So anything that is comfortable or soft which means that kids clothing if it's not sleepwear has to go through great pains to prove that it's not sleepwear so that they don't have to meet all those flammability and size requirements. So let's say you're trying to design kids clothes that are not for sleeping. They can't have pictures of anything that could be interpreted as sleepy.
SPEAKER_08: Like what is pictured on it. Is it sleeping animals. Is it a sleepy scene. Does that make you feel sleepy. If it makes you feel sleepy it's sleepwear.
SPEAKER_09: So no images of the moon no images of stars and no clouds. You know like a cloud thing probably wouldn't work.
SPEAKER_08: Your legal department at your company would be like you can't do that because that makes me feel like sleep. And then certain animals like owls.
SPEAKER_09: Even with other nocturnal creatures like bats unless you're designing a Halloween line and you really really really want to have a shirt with a bat on it. I don't know if it was on Halloween and it had enough like sequins on it or something
SPEAKER_08: maybe you could get away with it.
SPEAKER_09: Sequins are a good way to show a garment is not for sleeping. Same with glitter and action graphics and bright colors and ornamental pockets.
SPEAKER_08: You could bring it enough out of sleepwear that a kid would never want to sleep on it so make it uncomfortable or make it a jacket or something like that.
SPEAKER_09: Just decoration as a form of protection. Defending kids from fire and also protecting the companies from liability. Sometimes behind the glitter and garishness is a legal subtext. Sometimes not all the time.
SPEAKER_02: No I would say that that they believe that they're giving you something more special something more marketable by putting tchotchkes on the garment.
SPEAKER_09: This is Lana Hoge an industry expert who's been working in garment development and production for over 30 years.
SPEAKER_02: And the sequins are usually to appeal to the child.
SPEAKER_09: Do they do a lot of test groups and focus groups with little kids?
SPEAKER_02: You know I think they should more. I have not seen that anywhere. Really I worked.
SPEAKER_09: Manufacturers will ask parents what they're looking for in terms of styles but not the kids themselves. They don't have any money.
SPEAKER_02: Probably the closest they've come to focus groups and test groups were the photo shoots. Well and fit sessions we want to see how something fits. But if they're kind of oh it's itchy and they want out of it then you know that that's probably just a special occasion dress. It's not going to be their favorite item.
SPEAKER_09: But it's not like you'd cancel a garment because a kid didn't like it. No unfortunately they don't still.
SPEAKER_09: So the loudness of the kids department has to do with safety rules but not entirely. So it's not because of flammability. It's because of what kids want. But we don't ask kids what they want. Right we think kids want.
SPEAKER_02: Exactly. No I think you're right. But if you took a child into the store and you're walking around a lot of them are drawn to the silly things hanging off a garment but only up until a certain age. And I think that kids go through a really awkward period where they're trying to figure out what's cool again because they don't trust their their previous tastes.
SPEAKER_09: Although this is true for anyone at any age. We move out of one phase and into the next.
SPEAKER_09: Unless you are trapped in the children's section and forever relegated to this bright loud strange way of dressing.
SPEAKER_04: The pocket, the piece of paper, words from yesterday. There's a portrait painted on the things we love.
SPEAKER_09: Rules of Interest was made by myself Avery Truffleman. Edited by Joe Rosenberg. Music by Ray Royal. Intro and outro themes by Sasami Ashworth. Fact check by Graham Haysha. Mixed by Kelly Coyne. And Roman Mars is the adult supervision of this whole series. A very special thanks to Cassia St. Clair, Susie Furr, Juliette Hindley, Neruse Solomon and the Smitten Mitten Audio Collective in Detroit. As well as Katie Mingle, Emmett Fitzgerald, Sharif Yusef, Vivien Leigh, Delaney Hall, Kurt Kohlstedt and the whole 99PI team.
SPEAKER_09: When you think of old timey little kids, one of the main costumes that come to mind is the sailor suit. Like Donald Duck wore. I'm blood a sueted pup. A little naval costume for the cute little future man. You're being part of the establishment aren't you?
SPEAKER_05: Literally by putting your kids into kind of something they might one day grow up and become. It's rather perverse but there we are.
SPEAKER_09: This is Professor Jonathan Fares. And he says that in the United Kingdom, the equivalent of the sailor suit was a little plaid kilt with a suit jacket over it. Because this was once the uniform of the Catholic soldiers in Scotland.
SPEAKER_05: It was a very popular choice if you were a wealthy family to dress your kids in.
SPEAKER_09: To be like little soldiers? Yeah, little soldiers.
SPEAKER_05: Tough boys and girls.
SPEAKER_09: The little plaid kilt was common for upper class boys. And then this uniform spread to girls when they were also able to attend school. Your next article of interest is plaid.
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