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SPEAKER_09: That's our newest producer, Vivian Lee.
SPEAKER_09: For example, we learned that week that Sharon Osbourne had a fling with Jay Leno.
SPEAKER_08: Ugh, that should have stayed secret. But more interesting was a secret from one of the other co-hosts, Julie Chen.
SPEAKER_09: My secret dates back to when I was 25 years old and I was working as a local news reporter in Dayton, Ohio.
SPEAKER_05: The way Chen tells it, she'd been paying her dues as a reporter, but what she really dreamed about was becoming an anchor.
SPEAKER_09: You know, it's cold out in the field. I wanted to try and get a seat on the anchor desk.
SPEAKER_05: But when she approached her news director about the possibility, he gave her some feedback.
SPEAKER_09: And he said, because of your heritage, because of your Asian eyes, sometimes I've noticed when you're on camera and you're interviewing someone, you look disinterested.
SPEAKER_05: You look bored. Because your eyes are so heavy, they're so small.
SPEAKER_08: Ugh, I hate people. Yeah. But Chen, who's Chinese-American, found herself wondering if maybe he had a point and reached out to a prominent talent agent for some career advice.
SPEAKER_09: And he actually took it a step further. He said, I cannot represent you unless you get plastic surgery to make your eyes look bigger.
SPEAKER_09: And then Chen admits to the audience that she did it. She got the surgery. A procedure called blepharoplasty. For people who are not of East or Southeast Asian descent, blepharoplasty is usually done to lift loose or sagging skin around the upper eyelids caused by aging.
SPEAKER_08: Just Google Kenny Rogers before and after 2003. But for a lot of people of Asian descent, this surgery is more commonly referred to as double eyelid surgery. About half of Asians, myself included, are born with what's called a monolid or a single eyelid, which means that there's no visible crease on the eyelid skin above the lash line.
SPEAKER_09: This is what Julie Chen had before. The double eyelid surgery adds a crease. So instead of the skin of the upper lid running smoothly from the bottom of the eyebrow straight down to the eyelashes, there's now a small indented fold in the skin just a few millimeters wide that runs in a horizontal crescent above the lash line.
SPEAKER_08: This crease subtly changes the eye shape in a way that makes the eye itself appear slightly larger. The simplest method doesn't even involve any cuts, just a few stitches along the eyelid to create the crease.
SPEAKER_09: Chen got the surgery in the mid-90s, but she kept it hidden from the public up until 2013. And that day, when she tells the audience about it, it was surprising to me to hear her sounding so excited. I want to show you, I want to really demonstrate what my news headshot looked like before I had this plastic surgery done.
SPEAKER_05: I mean, if you look at the after, the eyes are bigger. I look more alert. Fabulous! More expressive? More expressive.
SPEAKER_09: Listening to that response, Sharon Osbourne saying, fabulous, it's sort of disturbing to me. Double eyelid surgery is one of the most popular procedures for Asian Americans, and hearing such a positive reaction, it really is no wonder why. The hopes of looking fabulous or more expressive are the same reasons why people in my own family have had the procedure done themselves.
SPEAKER_08: And this ethnically specific surgery may have its roots in Asia, but it wasn't Asian doctors who popularized it.
SPEAKER_09: It was popularized by a white guy from the US who thought he was doing Asian people a favor by helping them look less Asian. But before we get to him, the origin of double eyelid surgery itself dates back much further, to 19th century Japan.
SPEAKER_08: Beauty standards will always vary from culture to culture, and even within the same culture over time. Double eyelids are seen as a beauty preference for a lot of Asians and Asian Americans today, but that wasn't always the case. There's actually little to no record of double eyelids as an aesthetic preference until something called the Meiji Restoration. Before the 1860s, Japan practiced a policy of isolationism and limited their contact with other nations.
SPEAKER_09: But during the Meiji Restoration, which took place from the 1860s through the early 1900s, Japan opened up. It began incorporating a European-style banking system, new kinds of scientific technology, and Western-style clothing. It was also around this time that the first double eyelid surgery was performed by a Japanese surgeon. It's easy to find woodcut images or pictures of 1880s, 1890s of a limited number of Japanese female patients having eye changes.
SPEAKER_07: This is John DeMoya, a professor of medical history at Seoul National University.
SPEAKER_09: He says that as Japan's contact with Western nations increased, so did an appreciation for double eyelids over monolids. And this seems to be the case with a lot of Asian countries.
SPEAKER_07: Particularly places in Asia where there was a heavy contact either with the British Empire or with the broader, loose, to use the word American Empire, these tend to be places where blepharoplasty has tended to pop up. It's these moments where Asian countries begin developing relationships with Western empires that double eyelid surgery becomes more visible.
SPEAKER_07: Meiji Japan, definitely South Vietnam, there was lots of plastic surgery going on prior to and during the Vietnam War and post-Korean War. But while blepharoplasty may have already existed in Asia here and there, it didn't really take off in popularity until the Korean War.
SPEAKER_04: In Korea, United Nations troops push on and the cautious advance against the communists.
SPEAKER_08: The Korean War is technically still ongoing, but the actual fighting between Northern and Southern forces lasted from 1950 to 1953.
SPEAKER_09: By the time the armistice was signed dividing the peninsula into North and South Korea, the impact of the war had left South Korea pretty reliant on help from Western nations.
SPEAKER_07: What happened obviously created a certain path to pendency in the sense that much of the aid was coming from Western countries. This came in the form of food, construction, and importantly, medical aid, which is how an American doctor named David Ralph Millard ended up in South Korea.
SPEAKER_08: He's a military doctor. He doesn't arrive into Korea until the war is winding down or just after.
SPEAKER_07: Millard had graduated from both Harvard and Yale, then served in the Navy before settling on reconstructive surgery as his specialization.
SPEAKER_09: He studied under Harold Gillies, the father of modern plastic surgery, who was known for repairing the bodies and faces of World War I and World War II soldiers maimed in battle.
SPEAKER_07: I don't know if the word, I don't want to say normalcy, but he wants to restore some sense of a face that actually resembles a human face.
SPEAKER_08: Millard was stationed in Seoul in 1954, where he served as chief plastic surgeon for the United States Marine Corps. It was his job to provide reconstructive medical assistance to those suffering from disfigurement caused by war, burns, or simply by lack of medical access.
SPEAKER_09: Millard was a fan of old West films. He'd grown up riding horses and learning to tie knots and spinning ropes and idealizing manly Western stars like Ken Maynard and Buck Jones. He ended up bringing this kind of cowboy good guy savior mentality to his work in some strange and very literal ways. He first became well known for doing cleft palate surgeries on children.
SPEAKER_08: In his autobiography, which he titled Saving Faces, he tells the story of his first cleft palate patient in South Korea. Millard had been looking for someone to test a new method on, but he was having a hard time finding a willing subject. When he couldn't find a volunteer, he decided to rustle up one himself. This is before institutional review boards exist. He's largely self-authorized.
SPEAKER_07: Millard bragged that he spotted a 10-year-old South Korean boy with a cleft lip and ran back to grab a lasso that he kept in his footlocker.
SPEAKER_09: Yes, you heard that correctly. Millard brought a lasso over 6,000 miles to South Korea. I do not like where this is heading.
SPEAKER_09: He lassoed the 10-year-old and performed the surgery on him. And in case you were wondering, no, he did not have parental permission to do this. Backing away historically, probably today he could not do many of the things that he did were someone else looking in and actually reviewing his work from a professional standpoint.
SPEAKER_07: As crude and horrifying as Millard's methods could be, his work in cleft palate repair did get him respect in the field of reconstructive surgery.
SPEAKER_08: But he would soon become famous, or maybe infamous, for another procedure entirely.
SPEAKER_09: Blepharoplasty, or the double eyelid surgery. Millard was the first documented surgeon to perform this procedure in South Korea on a translator. He covered this in an essay that he wrote about his time overseas called Oriental Peregrinations, meaning Oriental Journeys. He depicts a Korean male translator who is coming to him because he wants to look different than he looks.
SPEAKER_09: Millard recounts, quote, a slant-eyed Korean interpreter speaking excellent English came in requesting to be made into a round eye. Unquote. The interpreter then tells Millard that his translation work relies on his relationships with Americans. So Millard writes, quote, he felt that because of the squint in his slant eyes, Americans could not tell what he was thinking and consequently did not trust him. As this was partly true, I consented. Unquote.
SPEAKER_08: Which sounds familiar.
SPEAKER_09: It's basically the same feedback that Julie Chen got 40 years later. That people couldn't read her expressions and audiences wouldn't relate to her. The stereotype of the inscrutable Asian has a long history in Western countries. It paints people from Asian nations as perpetual foreigners who are just too different to assimilate.
SPEAKER_08: In Millard's article, he shows dramatic before and after pictures of the translator, and it's clear that he thought the work he was doing was more than just cosmetic.
SPEAKER_07: The caption, I can't remember the exact words, but he says something like, now he is frequently mistaken for Italian or Spanish. Millard goes on to say that the translator, his face totally transformed now and European looking, plans to go to the United States to study for the ministry.
SPEAKER_09: So I mean, this is where people get angry at Millard, not only, you know, for whatever his ethics are in terms of the medical stuff, but the cultural assumptions where he thinks he can completely transform this man's life and his body through the act of surgery.
SPEAKER_07: Over the course of his year in South Korea, Millard continued performing blepharoplasty on others, specifically South Korean sex trade workers who are trying to appeal to American GIs.
SPEAKER_09: He described a woman's desire for eyelid surgery to be for economic reasons. To Millard, blepharoplasty offered a solution to a cultural disconnect between East and West.
SPEAKER_08: But it was only those with Asian features who were expected to change their bodies.
SPEAKER_09: With the population of East Asians growing in the United States, Millard speculated that double eyelid surgery might be useful at home in the U.S. too. GIs were bringing home Japanese and Korean brides, and Millard thought that plastic surgeons could help them integrate into American society. He definitely saw himself and liked to see himself as an advocate of the surgery. I don't think he could possibly, though, have anticipated how it would get picked up in different ways.
SPEAKER_07: According to the American Society of Plastic Surgery, more than 12,000 Asian Americans had double eyelid surgery in 2017.
SPEAKER_09: The procedure has become completely normal for both women and men, and given the racist history behind the procedure, it makes sense that some people in the U.S. are vocally critical about it. ...who says, look, eyelid surgery is fake, it's anti-Asian, you're erasing ethnic markers.
SPEAKER_04: So it's not so much about necessarily just a droopy eye, it's also about wanting to look more Caucasian. Chen's story has prompted a backlash. Some critics accused her of selling out, others claimed she had other...
SPEAKER_01: But not everybody buys this narrative of selling out.
SPEAKER_02: The Western media pretty much consistently has a pitying or condescending attitude about how Asians view plastic surgery. This is Yoon-hee Hong, a journalist and author of The Birth of Korean Cool. She says that the reaction to Julie Chen's double eyelid surgery was a perfect example of this condescending attitude.
SPEAKER_09: People were accusing her of being ashamed of her race, of being ashamed of having Asian eyes, and I was kind of gobsmacked by this because, you know, again, a person's body should be their business.
SPEAKER_02: Hong can speak from personal experience because she's had the surgery done herself. She says it was no big deal.
SPEAKER_08: The procedure doesn't take very long at all. It might even be something like 20 minutes.
SPEAKER_09: Hong says that the stigma around double eyelid surgery is distinctly American. The American media tends to assume that Asians are getting plastic surgery to look Caucasian. And in a multicultural society like the US, where racism is a daily reality, it could be hard for us not to interpret people's motivations through that lens.
SPEAKER_08: But Hong says the attitudes about plastic surgery are different in South Korea, where blepharoplasty was first popularized. While the procedure might have originated with the desire to look more Western, that isn't necessarily why South Korean people get it anymore.
SPEAKER_02: The history of double eyelid surgery might have been motivated in kind of racial hegemony or something like that, wanting to impose Western beauty standards on Asians, but as with a lot of things, including cuisine and art, it can have a certain origin, but it always gets adapted and localized. And Koreans have completely taken the ball and run with it. The surgery has taken on a new meaning.
SPEAKER_10: Now we are really focused on making beauty instead of making Western faces.
SPEAKER_09: This is So Yeon-lim, a scholar of South Korean plastic surgery at Seoul National University.
SPEAKER_08: She says South Koreans aren't looking to have their eyes changed for the same reasons they did back in the 1950s when Millard was around. Today, they're aspiring to their own uniquely South Korean standard of beauty, which has been shaped by complex cultural factors.
SPEAKER_09: In the late 1990s, South Korea suffered through a financial crisis, and the International Monetary Fund, or IMF, stepped in and completely restructured and modernized the economy. The country has since recovered and is now the 11th largest economy in the world. But the job market has become so competitive that getting a job can still be incredibly hard. People do whatever they can to compete. So your appearance is one of your resources, so you have to kind of develop your appearance to have a better job and better future or better partner.
SPEAKER_08: And the South Korean government has also fully embraced and encouraged the plastic surgery industry. There is governmental effort to promote Korean plastic surgery industry, so plastic surgery as well as Korean culture has been kind of a national income source for the Korean government.
SPEAKER_10: The South Korean government has lifted a ban on medical advertising and revised immigration rules to make it easier for foreign patients to get long-term medical visas. And now, medical tourism makes up a huge portion of the plastic surgery industry. People come from all over the world to have work done in South Korea.
SPEAKER_09: And, of course, many South Koreans get plastic surgery, too. Eyelid surgery is still the most popular procedure. It's so common that a lot of young people in South Korea will get the surgery as soon as they're old enough to.
SPEAKER_06: It's like a gift when you graduate high school before you go to college. It's kind of a — it comes with a laptop gift set.
SPEAKER_09: This is Ji Yeo, a photographer who spent time documenting the healing process of South Korean plastic surgery patients. She's witnessed many of the recent trends in Korean beauty culture affecting both women and men.
SPEAKER_06: So basically you have to have a chipped somewhat baby-looking face, which is lighter skin and very big eyes, narrow and high nose.
SPEAKER_08: And Yeo says that many people also want a sharp, narrow chin. The overall effect they go for isn't necessarily Caucasian. It's almost pixie-ish.
SPEAKER_06: You definitely have to have a very sharp V-line chin with no jawline, with very straight, narrow jawlines. So they tend to cut out those bones.
SPEAKER_09: To achieve this complete look requires a lot more than double eyelid surgery, which is fairly easy and low risk. Jaw reduction surgery is much more invasive and dangerous.
SPEAKER_08: Of course, any surgery has its risks, but this one involves slicing out a significant amount of jawbone and could lead to complications like nerve damage or chronic jaw pain.
SPEAKER_09: One in five South Korean women have gotten some form of plastic surgery done. And if you look at women ages 19 to 29, that number shoots up to one in three. Yeo says women face such immense cultural pressure to conform physically that it can be hard to resist.
SPEAKER_08: You should fight for your own beauty. You shouldn't follow the idealized beauty. You shouldn't be scrutinized by the culture. But it is so hard to fight and it is so much easier and peaceful to be part of the culture.
SPEAKER_08: But as critical as Yeo feels about some aspects of the plastic surgery culture in South Korea, she does wish that the rest of the world would just stop being so judgy.
SPEAKER_09: Because whether you're a Korean woman trying to meet your culture's exacting beauty standards or an Asian American woman like Julie Chen, weighing the choice between changing your appearance or hobbling your career prospects, you're basically damned if you do and damned if you don't.
SPEAKER_08: The art of making metal facial prosthetics for soldiers injured during World War One. After this. If thinking about salsa and a variety of delicious flavors and heat levels makes your mouth water, you need to check out Green Mountain Gringo. And make sure you turn the jar around to see its all natural ingredients. With a medium salsa, you get hearty chunks of tomatoes, tomatillos, peppers and onions in every scoop. Some like it hot and for those people like me, Green Mountain Gringo does not disappoint. My favorite is the hot salsa, which brings flavorful heat to every meal with each bite containing jalapenos, Serrano peppers and other savory herbs. Green Mountain Gringo even has their own tortilla strips made with stone ground all natural yellow corn flour. As far as I'm concerned, the secret to life is to have the ingredients to make nachos in your home at all times. Plus, they have a hot sauce with a tangy spicy flavor that enhances the simplest of meals. It's perfect for eggs. I like hot sauce on eggs. Visit Green Mountain Gringo dot com and start shopping. Use the store locator to find Green Mountain Gringo products, get inspiration for recipes and purchase products using promo code podcast 23 for 23 percent off. That's promo code podcast 23. The International Rescue Committee works in more than 40 countries to serve people whose lives have been upended by conflict and disaster. Over 110 million people are displaced around the world, and the IRS urgently needs your help to meet this unprecedented need. The IRS aims to respond within 72 hours after an emergency strikes, and they stay as long as they are needed. Some of the IRS is most important work is addressing the inequalities facing women and girls, ensuring safety from harm, improving health outcomes, increasing access to education, improving economic well-being and ensuring women and girls have the power to influence decisions that affect their lives. Generous people around the world give to the IRS to help families affected by humanitarian crises with emergency supplies. Your generous donation will give the IRS steady, reliable support, allowing them to continue their ongoing humanitarian efforts, even as they respond to emergencies. Donate today by visiting rescue dot org slash rebuild. Donate now and help refugee families in need. Chances are you're listening to 99 percent invisible on your phone, probably while you're on the go. Think of all that you do on your phone the moment you leave your front door, whether it's looking up directions, scrolling social media or listening to your favorite podcast. It requires an amazing network. That's why you should switch to T-Mobile. T-Mobile covers more highway miles with 5G than anyone else and helps keep you connected with 5G from the driveway to the highway and the miles in between. Because your phone should just work where you are. It's your lifeline to pretty much everything you didn't bring with you. So next time you head out, whether you're taking a trip or going to work or just running errands, remember T-Mobile has got you covered. Find out more at T-Mobile dot com slash network and switch to the network that covers more highway miles with 5G than anyone else. Coverage is not available in some areas. See 5G details at T-Mobile dot com. So we talked a little bit about how war accelerated the development of medical fields like reconstructive and cosmetic surgery. It also drove the growth of prosthetics, a field at the intersection of medicine and art and design. And 99 PI producer Vivian Lee is back to talk a little bit more about that field.
SPEAKER_09: Like with reconstructive surgery, the development of prosthetics really advanced during World War One, but specifically a branch of medicine called anaplastology, which deals with customized prosthetic pieces for people with missing or malformed parts of the body, especially for the face. World War One was a really rough time to be a soldier because technology like the machine gun and the tank had advanced to make killing people and injuring people so much more effective.
SPEAKER_08: Yeah, you hit the nail right on the head. And, you know, given the nature of trench warfare, soldiers would need to pop their heads out of these trenches to fire off rounds or to advance, making their faces vulnerable.
SPEAKER_09: So this made facial injuries really common. But it was also this moment in history where medical treatment was starting to get a lot better, which is good. But you also had men suffering from terrible head wounds and then surviving. So you have a lot of soldiers that are literally getting shot in the face, but they could now survive.
SPEAKER_08: It's really horrifying in and of itself, but also made it hard for soldiers to come home and have a normal life with their new disfigurement. Exactly. And reconstructive surgery was still in the beginning stages. So you had things like skin grafts, but there really was nothing you could do in terms of plastic surgery for someone who had, you know, their jaw taken off or gaping hole where their eye used to be.
SPEAKER_09: So anaplastology picked up in an aesthetic way where reconstructive surgery left off.
SPEAKER_08: And this is a really interesting intersection between art and medicine. Right. So you need to be able to recreate a human face, which takes a lot of artistic talent.
SPEAKER_09: And that's where artists like Anna Coleman Ladd came in. She was an American sculptor who lived in Boston at the time. A lot of her pre World War One artwork involved making like the bounding nymph and happy baby sculptures that you'd find in the fountains. And she founded something called the Studio for Portrait Masks in France, which made facial masks for veterans with severe injuries to the face.
SPEAKER_08: So how did an artist from Boston go on to found this studio in France with this really lofty mission?
SPEAKER_09: She moved to France with her husband because he was a doctor with the American Red Cross. And while she was there, she read about this other sculptor in London who was making these facial pieces for veterans. So she got funding from the Red Cross to do something similar in France. That's so cool. So what type of work goes into making a mask like this?
SPEAKER_09: Each mask would take about a month to make. Ladd would base each look off of pictures of veterans before their injuries to try to match as closely as possible what they looked like originally. And the process involved taking a plaster cast of their faces and then she'd shape the mask itself out of a thin sheet of galvanized copper. And these could weigh up to half a pound, depending on how large the injury was. And they were held to the face usually using string or wire. Sometimes they would use eyeglasses to keep them on if they wanted eyeglasses. And so these things are made of metal. Yeah, copper.
SPEAKER_08: That's amazing. And it seems like it takes a lot of creative interpretation to make the right type of mask out of metal. Right, yeah. And that's what made these specifically so special because she would have to hand paint each of the masks directly on their faces to make sure that their skin tones match.
SPEAKER_09: And matching the skin tone is especially tricky because, you know, when you're outside, the hue of your skin will change depending if you're in the sun or if you're in the shade. So she would basically need to split the difference between the two colors to make sure it wasn't extreme in either condition. And she'd also either use real human hair or slivered tinfoil to create the eyebrows or a mustache if they wanted it. And my favorite detail that she would do is, you know, if the mask had to cover the mouth of the recipient, she would leave a gap in the lips just wide enough for a cigarette to be put in. I guess at that point, smoke up. Just enjoy life.
SPEAKER_08: Yeah, I'm not going to police your life at that point.
SPEAKER_09: So did they do anything? The masks, they really were just cosmetic.
SPEAKER_08: Yeah, they're only cosmetic. They didn't have any functional purpose like, you know, you couldn't chew food or see again.
SPEAKER_09: But, you know, for someone who'd already suffered a massive facial injury, they could really mean a lot. I'm sure it did. It's such interesting work. I mean, and the pictures are really stunning.
SPEAKER_08: Yeah, and it's hard to describe these because when you think of a half pound copper mask on someone's face, it probably doesn't sound like it's going to be very realistic.
SPEAKER_09: But there's this video of Ladd fitting these masks on veterans and it's amazing how transformative they are once you see them in motion.
SPEAKER_08: And you can see for yourself on a video that we have up on the website. It's at 99pi.org. Thanks Viv. Thank you.
SPEAKER_08: Downtown Oakland, California. 99% Invisible is a proud member of Radio Topia from PRX, a fiercely independent collective of the most innovative shows in all of podcasting. You can find them all at radio topia.fm. You can find the show and join discussions about the show on Facebook. You can tweet at me at Roman Mars and the show at 99pi.org. We're on Instagram, Tumblr and Reddit too. But you can get all the tools to decode the secrets of the built world at 99pi.org. Radio Topia from PRX.
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